2．3. 1 Diction遣词用字
2．3. 1 Diction遣词用字
Vocabulary is the unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content．Comparatively，the content is even more unstable than the form．Of course，some meanings remain much the same for a long time because the referents to which they direct us do not change．Furthermore，it is necessary for a translator to know the differences and similarities between English and Chinese languages．The former lays emphasis on hypotaxis(形合)and the latter on parataxis(意合)．We should possess a strong awareness of this aspect while translating because it will cause us to be free from the influence of the English syntax on our translation from English into Chinese．In comparison with Chinese，English words are characterized by great vacillation(游移性)and flexibility(灵活性); the meaning of a word may range widely and it depends much on the contextual relationship．That is to say，each word when used in a different context will have a new meaning．Context plays a very important role in understanding the meaning of an English word．Whereas Chinese words，which do not range so widely as English words do，are comparatively rigorous，accurate and fixed in meaning．The vacillation and flexibility of English words are mainly shown by polysemy，therefore，it is often a hard task for a translator to find his Chinese equivalents that are suitable to the occasion．At the same time，we should also pay special attention to English word classes while translating from English into Chinese．
As far as diction is concerned，it is all the time a practical concern and issue that all the translators and English majors encounter in translation．Generally speaking，both English and Chinese words may be classified into five ranks，namely，words in two languages with complete equivalents，words with similar meanings(synonyms)，words with various meanings(polysemy)，words overlapping in meaning，and words with completely different meanings(antonyms)．As to our translators，we are mainly concerned about polysemy，synonyms，words overlapping in meaning and other cases．
By diction we mean the proper choice of words and phrases in translation on the basis of accurate comprehension of the original．In the practice of translation，what perplexes us most frequently is how to find an equivalent in the language to be translated into．Great care is called in the translation of familiar English words into Chinese，as their meanings vary with the change in collocation or context．
2．3．1．1 Polysemy一词多义
Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages．This is particularly true of highly developed languages like English．In modern English，an overwhelming majority of words are polysemous．A casual glance of any page of an English dictionary will justify the fact that there are words that have two or three senses，and the most commonly-used ones can have as many as over a hundred．Let us examine just a few words for example．The word “regular” may have different meanings on different occasions．
regular reading一般阅读 regular job固定工作
regular flight定期航班 regular visitor常客
regular speed匀速 regular army正规军
regular gasoline普通汽油
The word“delicate”will do the same．Look at the word“delicate”carefully in the different situations below．
delicate skin娇嫩的皮肤 delicate porcelain精致的瓷器
delicate upbringing娇生惯养 delicate living奢侈的生活
delicate health虚弱的身体 delicate stomach容易吃坏的胃
delicate vase容易碰碎的花瓶 delicate diplomatic question微妙的外交问题
delicate difference讲不大清楚的差异 delicate surgical operation难做的外科手术
delicate ear for music对音乐有鉴赏力 delicate sense of smell灵敏的嗅觉
delicate touch生花妙笔 delicate food美味的食物
Although numerous definitions have been suggested in dictionaries，scholars still do not think that all of them seem to be perfect．This is because today new words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time．With the rapid development of modern science and technology，with social，economic and political changes，and the influence of other cultures and languages，new words are being invented or introduced every day to express new things and new changes in society．Simultaneously，the present words，because of the changes and influences，have increasingly had other meanings in modern English．So the meanings of the “old words”vary with the changing contexts．Now let us take the word“identity”for example．
He also had been demanding that all Irishmen living in Britain be required to carry identity cards．
当时，他还一直要求所有居住在大不列颠的爱尔兰人必须携带身份证。
Their sexual identity，like that of all women competitors，had been officially confirmed by the Olympic Femininity Control Clinic．
她们的性别鉴定，像所有的女运动员的性别鉴定一样，已由奥林匹克女性医务监察部正式核实。
Lee has again and again stressed the need for his tiny nation to develop its own Singaporean—as opposed to Chinese—identity．
李光耀再三强调他的这个小小国家有必要发展自己的新加坡人的特点，以有别于中国人。
In Poland，loyalty to the church became the only means of defending national identity．
波兰，效忠教会现成为保护民族意识的唯一手段。
A young nation struggling to establish its identity produced leaders，such as Jefferson and Jackson，dedicated to a democratic process which，however，excluded Indians and blacks．
年轻的美国在奋力确立国家体制之际，产生了诸如杰弗逊和杰克逊那样的领袖，他们致力于民主制度的建立，然而这种民主制度是把印第安人和黑人排除在外的。
Comments In translating，polysemy is really a headache for beginners and even old hands．In the above examples，the word“identity”has a different sense in each context．Such a phenomenon tells us that word meaning must be judged by the context，instead of simply by a dictionary entry．For instance，“cards”in sentence 1 and“sexual”in sentence 2 give us a clear hint to decide their definitions．The last three sentences should be carefully read and analyzed by the context，and then we figure out what each sentence mainly talks about，and lastly decide what sense it is in the context．
2．3．1．2 Extension词义引申
The word“extension” ，also called“generalization” ，is a term of Latin origin referring to the stretching of meaning．Most words begin as specific names for things．With the passage of time，this precise denotation is lost and the word meaning is extended，generalized or blurred．Extension of meaning is the name given to the widening of meaning，which some words undergo．It is a process by which a word that originally had a specialized meaning becomes generalized．In other words，the term has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept．A good example is the word“manuscript”which now means“any author＇s writing whether by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word processor” ．Its original meaning was“handwriting”only，i．e．writing by hand．Another example is the word“fox” ．Its original meaning is“a kind of doglike animal” ，but its extended meaning is“a person who deceives others by means of clever tricks” ．
One more word“picture”is given to show extension of meaning．It once meant only a painted picture，then also a drawing，then a photograph，a cinematic picture，an X-ray picture，a TV picture，and now even a radio-telescope picture．While the referent was once a fixed stable object ，“picture”now names a class of things that can be broken up，reassembled，and dissolved in the case of laser holography，even three-dimensional．Therefore，in translating，we should pay much attention to such a phenomenon．Besides what we have discussed above，we mainly talk about a couple of points below concerning extension．
1)Extend the word meaning to cover an abstraction concept
Every life has its roses and thorns．
每个人的生活都有苦有甜。
There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of the imperialists．
帝国主义者的特性是既残暴又狡猾。
His novel is a mirror of the times．
他的小说是时代的一面镜子。
Comments In the first 2 sentences ，“roses and thorns” ，“the tiger and the ape”are extended to contain abstract concepts expressing the characteristics of these things or animals．In the last sentence ，“a mirror”is a specific thing used to express the abstraction concept of an exact or close representation．Here“a mirror”is not an actual thing but reflects the society that the author wants to describe．In other words ，“His novel is an epitome of the times” ．We can find a lot of examples like these: mend one＇s fences改善关系，lick one＇s boots巴结某人，break the ice打破僵局，put one＇s cards on the table表明观点或态度，eat like a bird吃得极少，catch forty winks打个盹儿，etc．In these phrases，some words are specific and countable nouns，but when they are fixed in certain phrases，they should be rendered to cover an abstraction concept or something like that．
The OED is the final court of appeal in all matters concerning English words．
《牛津辞典》是英文所有词语方面的问题的最高权威。
Sam knows he can depend on his family，rain or shine．
萨姆知道无论境况如何，他都可以将家庭作为靠山。
(或:萨姆知道无论下雨还是晴天，他都可以依靠他的家庭。)
See-sawing between partly good and faintly ominous，the news for the next four weeks was never distinct．
在那以后的四个星期里，消息时而部分有所好转，时而又有点不妙，两种情况不断交替出现。
If he is unhappy with her…why doesn＇t he leave her？She can be happy without him．It is so silly—this cat-and-dog existence．
假使他同她在一块是那么不幸福……他为什么不离开她呢?她没有他还可以幸福的。这是多么无聊啊——这种经常争吵的生活。
Comments The specific concepts are extended to cover abstract concepts．The specific things or creatures containing in words or phrases will be extended into abstract ones to show their features and symbolization．
2)Extend the word meaning to cover a specific concept
In two years，he was a national phenomenon．
两年以后，他成了风靡全国的杰出人物。
Victory always goes to the strong．
胜利永远属于强者。
Vietnam was his entree to the new Administration，his third incarnation as a foreign policy consultant．
越南战争成了他进入新政府的敲门砖，他担任政府的对外政策顾问，那是第三次了。
Have you read any humour recently?
近来你读了什么幽默作品吗?
As a boy，he was the despair of all his teachers．
小时候，他是个使所有老师失望的孩子。
Public opinion is demanding more and more that something be done about noise．
公众舆论越来越强烈地要求为消除噪音采取某些措施。
Comments In these sentences ，“phenomenon” ，“the strong” ，“entree” ，“humor”，“despair”and“something”are all the abstract words or phrases，but in Chinese versions，each of them presents a specific person or thing．So we should know that some abstract English words could be extended into specific concepts in translating in order that we have smooth，understandable and authentic Chinese versions．
2．3．1．3 Word classes一词多性
In English language，there is a phenomenon in which a word can go to several classes．One translator has to pay much attention to this aspect while rendering English materials because a word may have completely different senses when used as different classes．
milk: When used as a noun refers to a white liquid produced by human or animal females for feeding their young，but when it is used as a verb，it means to take milk from a cow，goat or other animals．
manifold: When used as an adjective means many in number，but it just refers to a pipe when used as a noun．When it is used as a verb，it means to copy．
Therefore，in translating，we have to well know the sentence structure and the key words in the sentence．Meanwhile，we try to understand the figures of speech or word classes．Finally，we should not forget the context so that we can choose the correct meaning．Take the word“bridge”for example．
He pushed his spectacles higher on the bridge of his nose．
他把鼻梁上的眼镜往上推了推。
The construction workers threw abridge across the river．
建筑工人在那条河上架起了一座大桥。
No concession can bridge over the chasms between the two groups．
无论何种让步也不能弥合这两个集团间的裂缝。
He bridged the awkward silence with a funny remark．
他说了句笑话，打破了尴尬的冷场。
Comments In the first two sentences，the word“bridge”is a noun，referring to鼻梁or大桥．But it is different in meaning when used as a verb，meaning“close and break the ice” ，just as in the last two sentences．From these examples，we can learn that word meanings will not only be determined by different contexts，but also by parts of speech．