二、静态与动态
二、静态与动态
英语受动词形态变化规则的限制，一个句子往往只运用一个动词，而其他的动词往往转化为非谓语动词、名词、介词或弱化和虚化了动词，因而降低了动词的使用频率。英语倾向于静态（static）：preponderance of nouns over verbs。而汉语无动词形态变化限制，无非谓语动词；多个动词可充当句子的各种成分，亦可连用甚至重复、重叠、合成并用。因而汉语倾向于动态（dynamic）：preponderance of verbs over nouns。[16]那么英语的静态倾向表现在那些方面：
（一）名词化（Nominalization）
所谓名词化是指用名词来表达动作、行为、变化、状态、品质、情感等概念。名词化可使英语表达简洁，造句灵活，行文自然，亦便于表达较为复杂的思想内容。
例1．他们违反在赫尔辛基达成的协议，在国内侵犯基本人权，因此受到各地热爱自由的人们的谴责。
译文1：Freedom－loving people everywhere condemned them because they violated the agreement reached at Helsinki and abused basic human rights in their own country．
译文2：The abuse of basic human rights in their own countryin violation of the agreement reached at Helsinki earned them the condemnation of freedom－loving people everywhere．
译文1整体呈动态；而译文2多运用名词来代替动作意义，整体倾向于静态。译文2更符合英语多静态的特点，更地道流畅。
例2．医生迅速到达，并非常仔细地检查了病人，因此病人很快就康复了。
译文1：The doctor arrived extremely quickly and examined the patient uncommonly carefully；the result was that he recovered very speedily．
译文2：The doctor’s extremely quick arrival and uncommonlycareful examination of the patient brought about his very speedy recoverey．
译文1用了多个动词做谓语，倾向于动态。译文2则用名词代替动词，整体呈静态，因而更像英语该有的表达方式。但英语中过分使用或滥用名词的习惯（noun habit）或（nominal style）会使文句冗长（wordy）、含糊（vague）、缺乏活力（lifeless）。凡事得有个度！
例3．写作时过分使用名词，势必给动词增加太多的负担，因而阻碍思路畅通。
译文1：The effect of the overuse of nouns in writing is the placingof too much strain upon the verbs and the resultant prevention of movement of the thought．
译文2：One who overuses nouns in writing places too much strain upon the verbs and as a result prevents the thought from moving along．
以上译文1缺乏动态感。唯一一个软弱的谓语动词“is”却要拉动一个满载名词的主语，还必须推动两个满载名词的表语，累啊。因此不少英美语言学者主张多用活泼的动词来简化句子结构，分担句子的负担，化静态为动态。但总体来说，英语常用名词，少用动词，属静态[17]。O．Jespersen指出：It seems possible to express ideas with greater precision and adequacy by means of nouns than by means of the more pictorial verbs…When we express by means of nouns what is generally expressed by finite verbs，our language becomes not only more abstract，but more abstruse，owing among other things to the fact that in the verbal substantive some of the life－giving elements of the verb（time，mood，person）disappear．While the nominal style may therefore serve the purposes of philosophy，where，however，it now and then does nothing but disguise simple thoughts in the garb of profound wisdom，it does not lend itself so well to the purposes of everyday life．[18]
（二）用名词表示施事者（Agentive noun），以代替动词
英语除了用抽象名词表示行为和动作（如realize－realization，complete－completion）外，还常用含有行为和动作意义的普通名词代替动词（如a hard worker，a slow walker，a good thief and a bad sailor）既表示施事者，又保留原来动词的意义，构成静态结构。而汉语由动词加后缀构成的名词（如读者、教师、打字员、修理工）用来指人，不再表示行为和动作，因而像a hard worker这样的名词要转换成汉语动词：（他）工作勤奋。[19]
例1．He is a good eater and a good sleeper．
译文：他能吃能睡。
例2．He was a nonsmoker and a teetotaler
译文：他既不喝酒，也不抽烟。
例3．She is the best hater I’ve ever known．How she got to hate me so much！
译文：我所认识的人中，她最会记仇。她怎么这么恨我呢？
例4．I used to be a bit of a fancier myself．
译文：过去我也常常有点喜欢胡思乱想。
例5．You’re all clock－watchers today！
译文：你们今天老是看着钟表等待下班啊！
例6．The computer is a far more careful and industrious inspector than human beings．
译文：计算机比人检查得更仔细、更勤快。
例7．Litmus paper can be used as an indicator of the presence or not of acid in a solution．
译文：石蕊试纸可用于指示溶液中是否含有酸。
（三）用名词代替形容词，构成标题式短语（Headline phrase）
报刊标题为了节约版面，尽量省去虚词和其他次要的词，把具有刺激性的词语（stimulating words）挤压在一起，因而名词连用成了一种“free－and－easy habit”。如：
Sino－American Trade Review Talks Start
中美贸易回顾会谈开始
January Crude Oil Output Beats Target
一月份原油产量超过指标
500－Meter－Long Flood Prevention Dyke Built
五百米长的防洪坝建成
这种名词连用的短语结构简化，表达方便，词数少而信息量大，其使用范围已大大超出了报刊标题，在现代英语中几乎俯拾即是。B．Foster指出：“The whole tendency of the modern language is towards doing away with adjectives，or at least，using nouns as epithets．”[20]如：
名词连用或复合名词在科技英语里尤其常见：
Space shuttle flight test program
航天飞机试飞计划
Computer programming teaching device manual
计算机程序编制教学方法手册
Satellite communications ground station equipment repairer
卫星通信地面站设备修理人员
名词连用加强了英语的名词优势，也反映了现代英语追求简洁的总趋势，但不少语言学者反对堆砌名词（nouns pileups），认为这会使语言失去活力，缺乏动态感，有时还会造成语意含混，甚至产生歧义。E．Gowers指出：“The constant use of headline phrases is usually a sign either of unclear thinking or of unwillingness to say things as briskly and simply as possible．A headline phrase consisting of more than two words should be treated with suspicion，and things tend to get even more awkward if the phrase includes an adjective as well as a number of nouns；it is not always obvious on first reading which noun the adjective qualifies，and tiresome problems of hyphenation sometimes arise．”[21]
例如，British history teachers既可理解为teachers of British history（教英国历史的教师），也可理解为British teachers of history（教历史的英国教师）。[22]又例如，
Excessive headline phrase condemnation is，of course，a possibility．
＝It is possible，of course，to go too far in condemning headline phrases．
＝it is possible，of course，to condemn the overuse of headline phrases．
名词连用或用名词代替形容词（noun adjectives）在现代英语中是一种盛行的文风。H．W．Fowler也指出：“These tricks，when allowed to affect literary style，destroy both precision and elegance；Sentences stumble along painfully and obscurely in synthetic lumps instead of running easily and lucidly with analytical grace．The corruption has gone far，affecting especially political speeches，official writing，and commercialese．”[23]例如：
例1．Major vehicle expansion projects must depend on steel availability．
＝Major projects for expanding the production of vehicles must depend on how much steel is available．
例2．Where retirement dissatisfaction existedadvance activity programming had been insignificant．
＝The people who were unhappy after retirement were those who had taken little trouble to plan their activities beforehand．
例3．This compulsion is much regretted，but a large vehicle fleet operator restriction in mileage has now been made imperative in meeting the demand for petrol economy．
＝We much regret having to do this，but we have been obliged to restrict greatly the operation of our large fleet of ve－hicles（or to restrict the operation of our fleet of large vehicles？）to meet the demand for economy in petrol．
（四）名词优势造成介词优势
英语多用名词必定使其多用介词。介词优势与名词优势结合使得英语静态倾向更为显著。介词随处可见，有学者把英语称为“介词的语言”。英语常用介词短语代替动词短语，即以“静”代“动”。[24]如：
例1．He is at his books．
译文：他在读书。
例2．The machine is in operation．
译文：机器正在运行。
例3．They immediately set out in pursuit of the enemy．
译文：他们立刻出动去追击敌人。
例4．Shall we go to the theatre
译文：咱们到剧场看戏，好吗？
例5．With these words she went away．
译文：说完这些话，她便走开了。
例6．He has someone behind him．
译文：有人给她撑腰。
例7．Is this train for Chicago？
译文：这趟火车是开往芝加哥吗？
介词与名词结合，组成介词短语（Prep＋n＝prepositional phrase）。大量介词短语常与弱化动词（如be，seem，look，become等）和“沉闷的名词”（ponderous nouns）连用。
In view of the fact that Mr．Jones is not very well，I am taking the opportunity of replaying on his behalf．
Our company’s well－defined position is that it stands ready at all times to co－operate with your firm whenever it is called upon to do so．The majority of stockholders are in complete sympathy with your company’s goals and objectives in regard to the construction of a new plant…
我们来化“静”为“动”：
I am replying for Mr．Jones，who is ill．
Our company is always ready to co－operate．Most of our stockholders sympathize with your aim to build a new plant…
“名称＋介词”这类短语可削弱或淡化（dilute）原来所要表达的动词、形容词和其他词语的意义，使叙述曲折迂回（circumlocution），因而增强了静态感，如：give rise to（arouse）。
例1．make contact with（meet）
例2．arrive at a decision（dscide）
例3．afford an opportunity to（allow）
例4．conduct an investigation into（investigate）
例5．of an unusual character（unusual）
例6．beyond the shadow of a doubt（certain）
例7．on two separate occasions（twice）
例8．in view of the foregoing circumstances（therefore）
英语文体学家认为滥用这种弱化表达法（debilitated style）是一种不良的文风。这类短语往往使表达显得啰唆（wordy）、累赘（verbose）、缺乏生气（lifeless），因而不宜提倡。H．W．Fowler指出，“Strings of nouns depending on one another and the use of compound prepositions are the most conspicuous symptoms of the periphrastic malady，and writers should be on the watch for these in their own composition”[25]．许多学者主张多用平易（plain）、活泼（lively）、具体（concrete）和直截了当的（direct）词，以减少英语的静态倾向。
（五）动词的弱化与虚化
英语中最常用的动词正是动作意味最弱的动词———to be，其各种形式（包括must be，may be，should have been等）都缺乏动态感。由“it”或“there”与be构成的句式，其静态意味更加明显，试比较：
例1．There was a tropical storm off the east coast of Florida．
译文：佛罗里达东海岸有一场热带风暴。
A tropical storm lashed the east coast of Florida．
译文：一场热带风暴袭击了佛罗里达东海岸。
例2．It was the finding of the committee that there had been bribes paid by company managers to foreign officials．
The committee found that company managers had bribed foreign officials．
译文：委员会发现公司经理向外国官员行贿。
除了be之外，have，become，grow，feel，go，come，get，do等也是英语常用的弱式动词（verbs of feeble phenomenality）．英语还常常把动词转化或派生成名词，置于虚化动词（如have，make，take，do等）之后作宾语，如have alook，take a walk，make attempts，pay visits，do some damages，put up a proposal等。这类动词短语往往显得虚弱而平淡无味（color－less）。[26]试比较：
例1．After he had a quarrel with his boss，Jack quit．
After he quarreled with his boss，Jack quit．
译文：杰克与老板争吵之后便辞职了。
例2．A distinction must be made between“economic”and “economical”．
You must distinguish between“economic”and“economical”．
必须把“economic”和“economical”加以区分。
此外，用动名词作虚化动词do的宾语，如do some shopping，do some washing等，也很常见：
例3．The combine does the harvesting of the grain．
The combine harvests the grain．
译文：联合收割机收割谷物。
（六）用形容词或副词表达动词的意义
英语常用动词的同源形容词与弱化动词相结合的方式表达动词的意义。
例1．I am doubtful whether he is still alive．
译文：我怀疑他是否还活着。
例2．The teacher thanked her pupils because they are very cooperative．
译文：学生合作得很好，老师向学生表示感谢。
不少动词可用其同源形容词来表达，如support（supportive），thank（thankful），create（creative），sleep（asleep）等。英语中表示心理或生理感觉的形容词以及其他形容词也常与弱式动词构成系表结构，表达相当于动词的意义，如：
例1．A postman is not afraid of dogs．
译文：邮递员不怕狗。
例2．John seems content just to sit in front of the television all night．
译文：约翰整夜坐在电视机前似乎就满足了。
英语还常用副词来表达动词的意义，如：
例1．I’m afraid Mr．Brown is out，but he’ll be in soon．
译文：恐怕布郎先生出去了，但是他很快会回来的。
例2．The newspaper was down at six yesterday．
译文：昨天报纸六点钟付印。
例3．Down with the old and up with the new．
译文：破旧立新
总之，英语常通过动词的派生、转化、弱化和虚化等手段，采用非动词形式（如名词、介词、形容词、副词等）表达动词的意义，因而表达呈静态。与此相比，汉语则倾向于多用动词，因而表达呈动态。